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Ash Whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae (Haliday) --
Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae |
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The
whitefly is known to attack 40 species of plants in California. Left
unchecked, its numbers rise to substantial levels within a wide variety of
host plants. Feeding by adult and young whiteflies extracts plant nutrients,
resulting in defoliation of trees, loss of fruit and, in severe cases, death
of the host tree. Severe impact on
outdoor activities in urban areas was caused by the enormous numbers of
flying whitefly adults. Honeydew
build-up on exposed surfaces also resulted in ruined paint on cars parked
beneath shade trees along city streets.
Biological control investigators at the University of California,
Riverside and in the California State Department of Food and Agriculture
concluded that ash whitefly had invaded from the Old World and developed a
plan to import parasitoids and predators from that part of the world. Two Encarsia
spp. nr. inaron were
introduced, one from central Italy and the other from Israel, the latter sent
by Dr. Dan Gerling of the University of Tel-Aviv <PHOTO>. These parasitoids were reared in
California and distributed in 13 counties of California and Arizona. Recoveries were made at all sites, but the
Israel strain seemed to predominate.
A coccinellid predator, Clitostethus
arcuatis was also
released in five California counties, but only with limited recoveries
(Bellows & Paine 1990). With the
establishment of these natural enemies in southern California, ash whitefly
was scarcely noticeable by the public in autumn of 1990. Dr.
Mark Hoddle of the University of California reports that economic impact of
the ash whitefly has been estimated in the millions of dollars, most severely
impacting the shade and fruit tree nursery industry and commercial
pomegranate orchards. Since the
biological control program of the ash whitefly established widespread control
with the use of a small parasitic wasp, Encarsia
inaron (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), there have been no reports of
economic damage and this pest no longer poses an economic threat to
California. One year after E. inaron releases began in 1992,
parasitism of ash whitefly nymphs averaged between 63 and 97%. Based on the economic value of preserving
healthy ornamental/evergreen pear and ash trees, the ash whitefly biocontrol
effort provided $219,822,823 and $298,803,970 in esthetic benefits to
California in wholesale and retail replacement values, respectively. For every dollar spent by the State
Biological Control Program and the University of California, approximately
$181 in wholesale and $245 in retail esthetic value for the primary hosts of
the ash whitefly were preserved. This whitefly occurs in low densities
throughout California except in higher elevation areas where temperatures are
too low for host and natural enemy survival.
The range of this pest has extended into other parts of North America
and around the world (e.g., New Zealand, Mexico, and Argentina) and complete
biological control has been achieved in these invaded areas. REFERENCES:
FURTHER RELATED REFERENCES Bellows, T. S. & T. D. Paine. 1990.
Distribution and biological evaluations of Encarsia sp. nr. inaron, parasitoid of ash whitefly, Siphonius phillyreae.
Progress Rept. to the Statewide UC IPM Project, Davis, CA. 13 p. Bellows, T. S., Jr., T. D. Paine, K-Y Arakawa, C. Meisenbacher, P. Leddy, & J. Kabashima. 1990. Biological control sought for ash
whitefly. California
Agriculture, 44 (l): 4-6. Bellows,
T. S., T. D. Paine, & D. Gerling,
1992. Development, survival, and fecundity of Clitstethus
arcuatus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on Siphoninus phillyreae (Homoptera:
Aleyrodiae) in the laboratory.
Environmental Entomology 21:
659-663. Evans, G. A.
& A. B. Hamon. 2002.
Whitefly taxonomic and ecological Web site: an on-line interactive
catalog of the whiteflies (Hemiptera:Aleyrodidae) of the world and their
parasites and predators. http://www.fscadpi.org /homoptera_hemiptera/ Whitefly/whitefly
catalog.htm. Gerling,
D., O. T. S. Rottenberg & S. J. Bellows. 2004. Role of
Natural Enemies and Other Factors in the Dynamics of Field Populations of the
Whitefly Siphoninus phillyreae
(Haliday) in Introduced and Native Environments. Biological Control 31:
199-209. Haliday, A. H. 1835. Aleyrodes phillyreae. Entomology Magazine 2: 119-120. Huffman, D. & K. A. Kidd. 2010.
Ash whitefly in North Carolina.
North Carolina State University Insect Notes 2010.
Mound, L. A. 1966. A revision of the
British Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera: Homoptera).
Bulletin of the British Museum of National History, Entomolgy 17: 419-420. Mound, L.
A. & S. H. Halsey.
1978. Whitefly of the World. A
Systematic Catalogue of the Aleyrodidae (Homoptera) with Host Plant and
Natural Enemy Data. British Museum of
Natural History) and John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. pp. 192-193. Nechols, J. R.
1995. Biological Control in
the Western United States: Accomplishments and Benefits of Regional Research
Project W-84, 1964-1989. UCANR
Publications. pp. 101–106. Pickett, C. H. & M. J. Pitcairn. 1999. Classical
biological control of ash whitefly: factors contributing to its success in
California. Biocontrol 44: 143-158. Sumner, Daniel A. &
Frank H. Buck, Jr. 2007. Exotic Pests and Diseases: Biology and
Economics for Biosecurity. John Wiley
& Sons. pp. 203–220. Stocks, I.. & Hodges G. 2010. Ash whitefly, Siphoninus
phillyreae (Haliday), a new exotic whitefly (Hemiptera:
Aleyrodidae) in central Florida, and Encarsia inaron, its
parasitoid (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae).
Florida Division of Plant Industry 2010. Viggiani, G. & P.
Mazzone. 1980. Encarsia
pseudopartenopea n.sp., parassita di Siphoninus phillyreae (Haliday) (Hom. Aleyrodidae). Bollettino el Laboratorio di Entomologia
Agraria 'Filippo Silvestri' 37: 9-12. Viggiani, G. & D.
Battaglia. 1983. Le specie italiane del genere Eretmocerus Hald. (Hymenoptera:
Aphelinidae). Bolletino del
Laboratorio di Entomologia Agraria 'Filippo Silvestri' 40: 97-101. Chiappini, E., S. V. Triapitzin & A. Donev. 1996.
Key to the Holarctic species of Anagrus
Haliday (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) with a review of the Nearctic and
Palaearctic (other than European) species and descriptions of new taxa. Journal of Natural History 30: 551-595. Triapitzin,
S. V. 1995a. The identities of Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) egg
parasitoid of the grape and blackberry leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)
in California. Pan-Pacific Entomol.
71 (4): 250-251. Triapitzin, S. V. 1995b. A review of the Australian species of Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae). Russian Entomological Journal 4
(1-4): 105-108. Triapitzin,
S. V. 1997. The genus Anagrus
(Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) in America south of the United States: a
review. Ceiba (Zamorano,
Honduras) 38 (1): 1-12. Triapitzin,
S. V. 1998. Anagrus
(Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) egg parasitoids of Erythroneura
spp. and other leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in North American
vineyards and orchards: a taxonomic review.
Transactions of the American Entomological Society. 124 (2): 77-112. Triapitzin, S. V., R. F. Mizell III,
J. L. Bossart & C. E. Carlton.
1998. Egg
parasitoids of Homalodisca coagulata
(Homoptera: Cicadellidae). Florida Entomologist 81
(2): 241-243. Triapitzin, S. V. & D. Strong.
1995. A new Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), an egg
parasitoid of Prokelisia spp. (Homoptera:
Delphacidae). Pan-Pacific Entomol. 71 (4): 199-203. Walker,
G. P., N. Zareh, I. M. Bayoun & S. V. Triapitzin. 1997. Introduction of western Asian egg
parasitoids into California for biological control of beet leafhopper, Circulifer tenellus. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 73 (4): 236-242. |
